1. The Site of Begram

1.1 Geography of the Region

1.1.1 Physical Geography

In a discussion about the function of the settlement uncovered at Begram, it seems important to address the physical geographic determinants of the region in which it is sited: whether or not, and what type of ancient cities developed in a given region was in large part dependent on water and landscape.  Surrounded by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to the north, Iran to the west and Pakistan to the south and east, Afghanistan[1] has neither direct nor fluvial access to an open sea (Fig. 1).  And hemmed in, too, by the barricades of its own rugged mountains: approximately one-third of the region lies at elevations over 2000 meters, while parts of eastern Afghanistan such as Badakhshan,  the Eastern Mountains, and the Pamir Knot sit between 4000 and 7000 meters (Figs. 2a& 2b) (Dupree 1973; Kraus 1972:17-20).

Figure 1	Figure 2a	Figure 2b

The most significant of Afghanistan’s mountain chains is the Hindu Kush and its contiguous ranges.  The Hindu Kush bifurcates the country, running westward from Badakhshan in the north-east to Bamian Province in the Central Mountains[2] where, interrupted briefly by the Bamian Valley, it continues into the Koh-i-Baba range.  The Hindu Kush is a relatively young mountain system, contemporary with the Himalayas and similarly configured in rugged ranges with sharp peaks and deep valleys:  as demonstrated by frequent earthquakes, the system is still evolving geologically.  [This frequent seismic activity[3] may prove important when discussing possible hypotheses concerning the demise of the ancient city at Begram. Archaeological research at sites in Afghanistan indicates damage to various ancient cities caused by severe earthquakes.[4]

The highest mountain areas of the east, and their passes, are covered most of the year with a thick layer of snow which makes travel extremely hazardous, and often impossible during the long cold winter months. A region of lower mountains and their foothills form the transition between the high ranges and the dry uplands which border the Indus Valley in south and southeast, Iran in the west, and Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north. The Kabul area, located in the northeast, is defined by three major river valleys, that of the Kabul, the Panjshir and the Ghurband (Fig. 3) (Dupree 1973). 

Figure 3

Surrounded by Hindu Kush ranges on three sides, Begram is situated in this transition region at the convergence of the Panjshir and Ghurband rivers in the province of Kapisa[5],  approximately 50 miles northeast of Kabul (Fig. 4a).  Although Afghanistan has a dry continental climate which is characterized by large differences in seasonal temperatures and very slight rainfall, the region of Begram and Kabul is among the most highly cultivated areas of the country as their three river valleys, the Ghurband, the Panjshir and the Kabul, receive a large measure of water from melted snow water which allows for irrigation (Bowlby 1978:12-29).

Figure 4a

The relative lushness of the region[6] is mentioned in the earliest European eyewitness description of the location of Begram  by the explorer Charles Masson, who traveled the region in the 19th century attempting to follow Alexander the Great’s itinerary and bent on identifying Alexandria ad Caucasum, one of Alexander’s cities in Afghanistan,.  In the memoir of his travels, Masson writes:

“It  (Begram) occurs about twenty-five miles in a direct distance from the present city of Kâbal, and is situated at the south-east point of the level country of Kohistân, in an angle formed by the approach of a lofty and extensive mountain range, trending from the superior Caucasus on the one side, and by an inferior range, (the Síáh Koh,) on the other..........

“Begram is comprised within an extensive district called Khwoja Khedari. To the north, it has an abrupt descent into the cultivated lands and pastures of the Bâltú Khél and Kerimdád Khél families, which interpose between it and the river for the extent of perhaps a mile, or until the river reaches the base of a singular eminence called Bûrj Abdúlah, which, from the remains of walls and mounds on its summit, was undoubtedly an appurtenance of the ancient city.  Beyond, or east of Búrj Abdúlah, another small space, devoted to culture, with two or three castles, called Karaichi, fills a curvature in the direction of the abrupt boundary of the plain with the course of the river. Beyond extends a low detached hill, called Koh Bacha, for about a mile and a half, separating for that distance the level dasht from the river.  At the eastern extremity of Koh Bacha is one of those remarkable structures we call topes; and on the opposite, or northern side of the river,  are the castles and cultivated lands of Mahomed Irâkhi, and beyond them a sterile sandy tract gradually ascends to a celebrated hill and zíárat, called Khowaja Régh Rawân, an interesting point in the scenery from Bégrám, and thence to the skirts of the superior hill range above mentioned, high up on which the gardens of the village Dúrnámeh are visible..........

The Kohistan, it may be observed, and which may better show the position of Bégrám, is a punchbowl, or basin, on three sides surrounded by hills, and on the fourth, or southern side, by a comparatively elevated tract, which forms, as it were, the rim, and runs sinuously from Tútam Dara - the point where issues into the basin the river Ghorband - and passing, as we have seen, the plain of Bégrám, extends easterly to Júlgha.  This basin may have a circumference of thirty-five to forty miles. The higher lands of Bégrám on the one side and of Máhomed Irâkhí on the opposite one, form the spout to this basin, from which descend its waters upon the lower countries eastward. The coup d’œil presented is most magnificent; the winding courses of the rivers, the picturesque appearance of the gardens and castles, the verdure of the pastures, the bold and varied aspect of the environing hills, crowned by the snowy summits of the Hindú Kosh, form a landscape whose beauty can scarcely be conceived but by those who have witnessed it.  The natives of these countries are apt to compare it with the scenery about Herát and the Kohistân of Meshed, but they, as well as the neigbourhood of Ispahân, which is very beautiful, must yield the palm to the Kohistân of Kâbal.

"The boundaries of the dasht of Bégrám are the lands of Júlgha to the east, the level plain of the Mâhíghír to the west, the river of Kohistân to the north, and to the south what is called the river of Koh Dáman. At the north-west angle of the dasht is the small village of Killa Bolend, where reside a few Hindú traders, who have considerable inter course with the neighbouring hill tribes, and at the south-west angle are three castles, called Killa Yezbáshi, distant from Killa Bolend about four miles.” (Masson 1842, Vol.III:150-154).

Some of Masson’s specific observations have not been corroborated by more recent research, and a few are simply insupportable, such as the actual distance between Kabul and Begram.  However, for the most part Masson’s description offers the reader an excellent introduction to the landscape of parts of modern  Kapisa and Kabul provinces.  Descriptions of the landscape of the region can also be obtained from ancient literary sources.[7]  For example, the Chinese pilgrim Hsüan-tsang, whose journey in the 7th century CE from China to India took him through Afghanistan, similarly described the region of Kapisa as surrounded by snowy mountains and black ranges, with the climate cold and windy (Beal 1906:54). [The apparent difference in the accounts of Masson and Hsüan-tsang regarding the climate could simply be a matter of arriving in the region at different times of the year. Climatic data on the general Kabul area confirm relatively warm summers and cold, harsh winters.]

Alfred Foucher, who headed the workings of the French Archaeological Delegation in Afghanistan in the 1920s, also remarked on the relative fertility of the Begram valley, which he refers to as: “one of the most beautiful and fertile regions of Afghanistan” (Foucher 1928:24).  To the same effect, Paul Bernard, who visited the site more recently, notes:

“Quiconque a eu la chance de parcourir la plaine du Kahdaman au Nord de Caboul et de visiter les ruines de Bégram dans l’angle Nord-Est de cette plaine, ne peut qu’avoir été frappé par la beauté du site et avoir admiré le sens aigu du terrain qui présida au choix du site pour l’établissement d’une ville.” ( Bernard 1982:237)

1.1.2 Patterns of subsistence

These generally favorable geographical conditions of the region probably were, as suggested by Bernard in the above quote, the most important determinant for the development of Begram. The climate with relatively warm summers and the irrigation possibilities provided by the waters of the Panjshir and Ghurband rivers combined to supply an agricultural base for Begram.  From Masson’s account on the region surrounding Begram we get a sense of the agricultural pattern:

“East of the tope (remains of a Buddhist Stupa), the level plain stretches for above a mile, until, with the same character of abrupt termination, it sinks into the low lands of Julgha, where are numerous castles, much cultivated land, and, as the name Júlgha implies, a large extent of pasture.” (Masson 1842, Vol.III:153)

Indeed, agriculture is still the single most important sector of the Afghan economy: in modern Afghanistan, 85% of the population engages in agricultural production (Kraus 1972:308).  However, the combination of altitude, rugged landscape and extreme climate permits only a few regions, 5-12 % of the total area, to be widely cultivated (Fig. 5). The low and fluctuating amounts of precipitation make agricultural production extremely difficult, and agriculture must depend on melting winter snows to provide enough spring and summer water for irrigation.  Because of the lack of reliable water sources, dry farming is practiced on one-third of cultivated land; 21% of the country’s wheat crop, for example, is produced by dry farming (Bowlby 1978: 29). 

Figure 5

In the mountainous areas in central and northeastern Afghanistan there exists an agricultural impediment in addition to low and unpredictable precipitation. Due to the number of cold months and therefore short growing season,  it is only possible to grow one crop annually. By contrast, in the lower-lying and warmer areas like Jalalabad, in eastern Afghanistan, up to three crops per year are possible (Amin 1976:49). 

The major areas under cultivation are in the main river valleys:  the Amu Darya in the north; the Kabul and its tributaries the Ghurband and Panjshir; the Helmand and the Hari Rud. In addition to river irrigation, still in widespread use is the venerable ‘karez’ system, networks of underground tunnels dug to bring hill water directly to the cultivated areas and which are most frequently found in the areas of the foothills and lower mountains, such as in the region of Begram (Bowlby 1978:25; Amin 1976:27).

A variety of crops are grown within the country’s climatic zones, the most important food crops of which are wheat, corn and barley.  In areas where there is a warmer climate and an ample supply of water, rice is cultivated. In the north, other field crops such as cotton and sugarbeet form a large part of the agricultural production.

Recent data on Kapisa province demonstrates the extent of modern agricultural and pastoral use in the area. In 1967 - 1968, there were 381 villages in Kapisa and an agricultural population of 460,810, of whom more than 10% were land and animal owners. Unlike the rest of the country, 99% of the total cultivated area was irrigated jeribs,  only 1% consisting of dry farming. Most common livestock included sheep, goats, cows and donkeys, and less frequently, buffalo, yak and camels (Amin 1976:67-69).

Ordinarily, from such data concerning modern cultivation patterns and practices alone, one would not attempt to extrapolate a picture of agricultural development some 1500 to 2000 years earlier.  Indeed, Masson appears convinced that the region of Begram was anything but lush in ancient times:

“...Taimúr (Timur), in his progress from Anderáb to Kábal, encamped on the plain of Bárân (the modern Baiyân, certainly); and that while there he directed a canal to be cut, which was called Mâhíghír; by which means the country, before desolate and unproductive, became fertile and full of gardens.  The lands, thus restored to cultivation, the conqueror apportioned among sundry of his followers.  The canal of Mâhíghír exists at this day, preserving the name conferred upon it by Taimúr. A considerable village, about a mile west of Bégrám, standing on the canal, has a similar appellation, and probably also owes its origin to Taimúr, who may have attempted in it to have revived or renewed the ancient city.  This canal of Mâhíghír, derived from the river of the Ghorband valley, at the point where it issues from the hills into the basin of the Kohistân, irrigates the lands of Baiyân and Mâhíghír, and has a course of about ten miles.  Had the city of Bégrám then existed these lands immediately to the west of it would not have been wasted, and neglected.....The site of Bégrám, although having to the north the great river of the Kohistân, could not have been irrigated from it, as its stream flows in low land, considerably beneath the level of the dasht, besides being too distant.” (Masson 1842, Vol.III:161-162)

However, Masson did not have the benefit of more recent archaeological data which indicate the considerable antiquity of the “karez” irrigation system. And other, more ancient literary sources might support the notion of rich agricultural patterns around Begram. Hsüan-tsang mentions that in the country of Kapisa all kinds of cereals and many fruit trees were grown. He also mentions the occurrence of saffron and the breeding of “Shen Horses”.(Beal 1906:54)  Indian sources make mention of the region of Kapisa as a grape growing and wine making area. (Chattopadhyaya 1974:58) However, these sources are themselves problematic due to the uncertainty concerning the exact location of ancient Kapisa and its relation to the modern region of the same name.

Despite the obvious problems with the use of modern data to trace ancient patterns, two conditions militate toward making the inferential leap in the case of Afghanistan.  First is the unfortunate dearth of archaeological data concerning early agricultural patterns in the region.  Regrettably, when the excavations at Begram took place in the first half of this century, neither the multi-disciplinary character of archaeological research nor the sophistication of its current analytic techniques had yet been developed. And political turmoil has prevented later and more detailed excavations and analysis of the site. Now, for example, it might be possible to determine the dietary staples of a particular society or the timber it used as building material, each a salient element in creating a picture of agricultural patterns and thus of the culture as a whole.

However, while lack of data forces us to attempt to limn ancient agricultural patterns directly from the modern, the nature of the region’s ‘modern’ practices permits us to do so with some added degree of confidence.  Modern agricultural development in Afghanistan is for the most part still dominated by climatic and topographical imperatives which have not changed significantly over the last 2000 years.  Cultivation patterns still cleave entirely to natural configurations of river irrigation and alluvia, and the use of the ‘karez’ irrigation system and other basic elements of farming seem not to have altered greatly over the centuries. 

1.1.3 Location along ancient trade routes

If the favorable climate and landscape provided an important determinant for a city to develop on the ancient site of Begram,  the exact nature and function of the city must next be addressed. As will be discussed in chapter 1.2.3,  some scholars argue that it was Alexander the Great’s need for a military post that resulted in the founding of Begram.  Others argue that it developed as a regional capital city under the Graeco-Bactrians and was elevated into a royal capital city under the Kushans.

One of the questions which relates to the nature and function of the settlement at Begram is whether the finds discovered in two anciently sealed-off rooms (see section 1.4) were part of a royal treasure.  Or, were they instead perhaps a more mundane part of the commercial stock of traders, which might point to Begram having been a trading center as well as an important regional city. This is a question which is addressed repeatedly, in different context, throughout this work.

And in determining the nature of the ancient city, its geographical location of the site of Begram is particularly striking. In a region as physically massive and frequently weather-bound as Afghanistan,  its mountain passes serve as vital arteries enabling a sustaining flow of trade and communication.  In the Pamir region of the extreme northeast it is the Kilik and Yakhijir passes, lying at elevations of nearly 5000 meters, which connect Afghanistan with China.  In the western Hindu Kush, a number of passes near the Bamian Valley connect north and south Afghanistan, including the Shebar pass at an elevation of 2987 meters and the Nil Kowtal Pass at 3538 meters.  And, on the eastern border of Afghanistan, the legendary Khyber Pass cuts through the Hindu Kush at the relatively low elevation of 1080 meters (Nelles Map of Afghanistan).  The Khyber Pass connects the area of Jalalabad with the city of Peshawar in Pakistan, and beyond.

With specific regard to Begram, to its immediate south the Kohdaman plains stretch all the way to Kabul; to its south-east, the Panjshir river flows through its valley down toward the Jalalabad plains and further on to the Khyber pass.  The high mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush ordinarily would be a natural barrier limiting travel to and from Begram to the north, but a number of passes and valleys made it possible  to move through the mountains towards the Turkestan plains of the ancient kingdom of Bactria:  the Solang Pass (used until 1934 when the Solang tunnel was built) and the river valleys of the Andarab and Pol-e-Khomri, for example, lead to the ancient site of Surkh Kotal (near modern Baghlan) where the Hindu Kush mountains are left behind and one enters the plains of ancient Bactria with its capital at modern Balkh.  Connecting north and south Afghanistan is the Shekari River valley which runs through the western Hindu Kush and ends in the Shebar pass (2987 meters) leading to the Ghurband river valley which in turn continues eastward and connects with Begram.  

Begram also had access westward.  From Begram, the Ghurband river valley leads into the Bamian valley connecting Begram with Bamian, and via a number of intermediate valleys, with the Safid and Qasa Murg mountain ranges, and with Herat in western Afghanistan, and ultimately with regions further to the west.

To the east and northeast of Begram lie the highest ranges of the eastern Hindu Kush mountains, which lead into the great Pamir  mountain chain.  Travel in this area is extremely hazardous, but even in this direction movement to and from Begram was not impossible:  a number of passes and valleys do run all the way to the easternmost reaches of the Pamir region (Nelles Map of Afghanistan).

From all of the above, it can be argued that the ancient site at Begram was particularly well situated to connect with overland trade routes (Fig. 6).  Begram would have provided the main stopping place before or after travel through the Hindu Kush .  The site was located on the primary route connecting India to Central Asia, which included such other sites as Balkh, Kabul, Jalalabad and Peshawar. At Merv, in Turkmenistan, this north-south route connected with the Silk Routes coming from the east and then continued onward via Seleucia and Antioch to Alexandria, Egypt. 

Figure 6

Alexandria was also the point of origin of the main Mediterranean - Asian sea routes which may have provided another, indirect, connection between the western world and Begram.  The distribution of Roman pillar-molded glassware (see section 1.4) in the coastal areas of the Arabian Gulf, and the east coast of India and at Begram, as well as ancient literary sources such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,  suggest that Roman glassware was imported into ports such as Barbaricum, at the mouth of the Indus and Barygaza (modern Broach) in Gujerat, then further distributed to northern land regions.

The large distribution of lapis lazuli in West and South Asia, originating from the Badakhshan mountains in eastern Afghanistan, and the various notation in ancient literary sources to the export of wine, saffron, indigo, fruits and horses, likewise indicate the extent of the region’s involvement in long-distance trade.

In all, Begram’s strategic location at the intersection of various routes can be conceived of both as well-placed for a military site -- the Alexandrian outpost or a well-protected royal city -- and as particularly well-suited to development as a fortified trade center.  This suitability of Begram as a center on various trade routes is both supported by, and may help explain, the extraordinary artifacts of Chinese, Indian and Roman origin discovered at the site and which are further discussed in this thesis.

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