4.2 Analogous Ivory and Bone Carvings (continued)

4.2.3 Ivory comb from Tillya-tepe

The site of Tillya-tepe is situated three kilometers from the city of Sibergan, to the west of modern Balkh, Afghanistan (Fig. 4a).

Figure 4a

The site has the shape of a hill, with a diameter of 80 meters. While the lower reaches of the mound contain a monumental building and the remains of a surrounding settlement, the fame of Tillya-tepe rests on six graves that were found in the upper part of the mound. The necropolis, according to Sarianidi (1985) a family graveyard, is characterized by plain burials with rich grave goods. This suggests that they were secret burials, unadvertised in order to save them from plunder. The coffins were made of wood planks, and had legs; the coffins had no lids but were wrapped in shrouds spangled with sewn-on gold and silver disks. The buried consisted of five women and one man; research has shown that they were garbed in beautiful ceremonial outfits. They were placed inside the coffins with their heads directed toward the north, save for the woman in Grave 5 who was buried with her head toward the west and who was less elaborately adorned than the others, perhaps indicating that she was of lesser standing. Among the grave goods were imported objects such as Chinese mirrors, Roman and Indian coins and an ivory comb.

This ivory comb provides another analogy to the incised ware from Begram. Although heavily damaged and reduced to four small remaining fragments, the incised ivory comb from the Tillya-tepe necropolis [1] can be seen to depict the naked torso of a male figure in three-quarter profile, facing the left (Fig.111). His head is bald and, although difficult to see on the damaged plaque, he is depicted within a decor of floral motifs similar to vegetation depicted on some ivory and bone objects from Begram (Plates 58 and 64). Also, and perhaps more importantly, the same ‘dotted’ technique witnessed in the Dal’verzin-tepe example, and the analogous material from Begram, appears yet again on the head of the figure, as if to indicate the stubble of shaved-off hair.

4.2.4 Ivory comb from Taxila

Taxila is situated in northern Pakistan (Fig. 4a). As with Begram, it was situated along one of the main trade routes connecting modern Afghanistan with Pakistan and India. Excavations were carried out in the early 20th century by Cunningham, who was succeeded by John Marshall and Mortimer Wheeler. Excavations there continue to be conducted by the Department of Archaeology of Pakistan.

The earliest urban occupation at Taxila seems to pre-date Begram, back to the Achaemenid period in the Bhir mound. But Taxila has a history analogous to Begram’s from the period of Alexander the Great onwards, with continued occupation through Greek, Kushan, Sasanian, Kushano-Sasanian and finally the Hephthalite period, when it was attacked and apparently destroyed. The extensive remains include the Bhir mound, which harbors the earliest structures dating from the 6th century BCE to the 2nd century BCE, when the so-called Sirkap mound was constructed under the Indo-Greeks, followed by the Sirsukh, founded by the Kushans in the 1st century CE.

Among the many ivory and bone finds from Taxila were bangles, dice, spoons, handles, ear cleaners and mirror handles (Dwivedi 1976:76-77). The profusion of ivory and bone finds led most scholars to believe that Taxila was a major ivory and bone producing site. Dwivedi notes (1976:76): “Seeing the quantity of the excavated ivory articles from Taxila it seems likely that these were manufactured locally. It can be assigned to the later half of the first century A.D. on the basis of its workmanship as well as the stratum form which it was discovered.”

The finds from Taxila that are most interesting for comparison with the Begram objects are two ivory combs dating to the first century CE. The most beautiful one is carved into a semi-elliptic form. On the obverse of the comb (Fig.112) a woman is depicted, seen from above, lying on a bed or mattress. She is shown in three-quarter profile reclining on her right side with her legs crossed. Her right arm is flexed upward and positioned under her head; her left hand holds the edge of the bed. She is depicted wearing a striped dhoti with a short front pleat. She has sharp facial features, with slanting eyes and eyebrows and a pointed nose. Her hair is done up in a large circular bun at the back of her neck. This motif of the reclining woman takes up almost 4/5 of the obverse side of the comb.

In the remaining 1/5 part, a squatting attendant figure is depicted frontally, giving a distorted perspective in relation to the reclining woman. The small attendant figure’s head is turned to the left, toward the reclining woman, and she holds a bowl above her head, in her left hand; her right arm is not seen. She is wearing a striped lower garment.

The decoration on the reverse of the ivory comb from Taxila is divided into four compartments (Fig.113). On the left side, a lion is shown in profile to the right, with its tail raised. Next to the lion, an auspicious symbol is depicted, which Dwivedi (1976:75-76) describes as an “Indrayashti or vaijayanti, with an axe-shaped frame and foliate supports, over which rests an oblong cross-bar holding the flag”. Next to the “vaijayanti” [2] , an elephant is shown in profile, facing the left. His left front leg is positioned in front of the right, suggesting movement. Finally, in the far right, a conch is depicted with its tip at the bottom.

There are several similarities between this ivory comb from Taxila and the Begram examples. The first analogy is in the carving technique. Part of the ivory comb from Taxila is engraved while the other part displays the flat relief which appears in many Begram pieces. The second similarity lies in the apparel of the reclining woman and her facial features, both of which are very like some depictions on the Begram objects (Plates 63-64). In particular, the way her hair is done up is very reminiscent of styles not only on the Begram objects but also on the ivory comb from Dal’verzin-tepe (Plate 108). Finally, the earring of the small female attendant figure is identical in shape to an earring found on one of the Begram pieces(Plate 56).

The second ivory piece from Taxila which compares favorably to the Begram objects is a small, 4.8 cm., comb depicting a duck on one side and the bust of a couple on the other (Figs.114-115). The motif of the duck is prevalent in the Begram hoard and the motif of a pair of human busts depicted behind some kind of balustrade is well known from Kushan art in Mathura.

4.2.5. Ivory object from Jetavana ‘Treasure’, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

The treasure found in the Jetavana Stupa in Anuradhapura bears more than just stylistic similarities to the Begram cache. The group of finds from Jetavana in itself comprises the same variety of objects as characterize the Begram pieces. As at Begram, Roman, Indian and other non-local objects were found stashed together in one location were discovered. In contrast to the situation at Begram, the function of the hoard is clear, since the objects in question can be seen to have formed part of a foundation treasure which had been buried at the Jetavana Stupa. The treasure was put in place in a layer between two of the stupa’s platforms dating back to the earliest construction level of the religious edifice. Although the stupa itself is dated to the reign of King Mahasena, i.e. late 3rd-early 4th century CE., individual pieces of the treasure have been dated from the 2nd century BCE to the late 3rd century CE (Ratnayake 1990:45).

The 400 objects of ivory and bone which were uncovered in the stupa included bracelets, dice, the head of a makara, hairpins, reliquary spires, and beads. In the few reports published on the ivories and other material, references have been made to the similarities between the Jetavana material and that of Begram. Ratnayake (1990:45) refers to a ceramic pitcher found among the Jetavana treasure which depicts a vine leaf on its shoulder and which has analogies to a fragment of a ceramic jar discovered at Begram.

Among the ivory objects discovered among the Jetavana treasure, a few objects can be considered analogous to material from Begram. The first is a tiny carving of a crouching griffin (Fig.116), a prevalent motif in the Begram ivory and bone carvings. The style of the Jetavana carving, with curved contours to the hind of the animal, is also very much like that of griffins seen on Begram pieces (Plate 303).

Another small ivory (Fig.117) from the Jetavana treasure depicts the head of a makara, with its mouth wide open and carrying a garland. Again, both theme and execution of the carving have analogies to the Begram material (Plates 335-339). From thin jutting-out parts with holes on the makara carving, also present on one other carving from the Jetavana treasure, it is clear that this object had originally been or was supposed to be inserted into another piece. Indeed, the carvings may have had a similar function as that of the Begram material, that is, as furniture plaques and supports. However, the type of holes and related form of insertion is different from that in the Begram material, which suggests that the pieces came from different workshops or ateliers.

And as to dating the Jetavana ivories in comparison with the Begram material, even assuming they originated from the same region, the fact that the Jetavana treasure only has a terminus ante quem date makes it impossible to assign individual pieces from the hoard to exact eras of fabrication.

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